Psychology+Ch+1+Notes

Thinking Critically with Psychological Thought __The Limits of Intuition and Common Sense__ Intuition can lead us astray (we are often wrong) __Scientific Attitude__ Critical thinkers always ask questions. __Scientific Method__ Theory will useful if (1) effectively arranges self reports and observations 2) implies clear predictions that anyone can use to check the theory or to derive practical applications. Good theories explain by organizing and linking obseved facts __Case Study__ Freud and Jean Piaget used case studies in their research Can sometimes be misleading - atypical subject __Survey__ __**Wording e****ffect**__- phrase, answers can vary __**Sampling**__ __**Naturalistic Observation**__ Observing and recording behavior in naturally occuring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation. Not in depth Used for primate studies and fast paced lifestyles __**Correlation**__ __correlation coefficient__ - a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. __scatter plot__ - a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation(little scatter indicates high correlation). __**Correlation and Causation**__ __**Illusory Correlations**__ __Illusory correlation__-the perception of a relationship where non exists. __ Perceiving Order in Random Events __ -Even in random data, we look for order, for meaningful patterns -Random sequences often don’t look random. -Psychologists Thomas Holtgraves and James Skeel (1992)exposed people’s perceptions of randomness in their bets placed in India’s Pick-3 Lottery. - Illusory correlations arise from our natural eagerness to make sense of our world. __ Experimentation __ -**Experiment**-a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. By random assignment of participants, the experiment controls other relevant factor -Experiments enable a researcher to focus on the possible effects of one or more facts (1)//manipulating the factors of interes// (2)//holding constant other factors// -If behavior changes when we vary an experimental factor, then we know that the factor is having an effect-Unlike correlational studies, which uncover naturally occurring relationships, an experiments manipulates a factor to determine its effect.
 * Hindsight Bias** - Tendency to believe that you knew it was going to happen after learning an outcome.
 * Critical Thinking** - Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Examines assumptions and discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and accesses conclusions. (Don't take the word of anyone without checking)
 * Scientific Method** - Hypothesis, test through observations, analyze data, conclusion
 * Theory**- idea that explains through an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts behaviors or events
 * Hypothesis** - implied testable predictions
 * Operational Definition** - Statement of procedures used to define research variables (consistent steps)
 * Replicate** - repeat
 * Case study** - one individual to see universal principals
 * Survey -** Technique for ascertaining self reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative
 * False Consensus** - tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors
 * Population** - all the cases in a group from which samples may be drawn for a study
 * Representative** - diverse group
 * Random Sampling** - Every one has an equal chance of being selected
 * Sample Size** - Large enough to represent population
 * 1) When observations reveal that one trait accompanies another, we say the two //correlate.//
 * 2) A negative correlation means that two things relate inversely
 * 3) Statistics help us see what the naked eye sometimes misses
 * 4) To see what is right in front of us, we sometimes need statistical illumination
 * 5) correlation coefficient tells us nothing about cause and effect, it can help us see the world more clearly by revealing the actual extent to which two things relate.
 * 1) Correlations help us predict and restrain the illusions of our flawed intuition.
 * 2) Watching violence correlates with aggression.
 * 3) Correlations indicates the possibility of a cause-effected relationship, but it does not prove causation.
 * 1) When we believe there is a relationship between two things, we are likely to notice and recall instances that confirm our belief.
 * 2) Because we are sensitive to dramatic or unusual events, we are likely to remember the occurrence of two such events in sequence.
 * 3) <span style="color: #000000; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial; font-size: 16px; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 36pt; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">When we notice random coincidences, we may forget they are random and instead see them as correlated

__Evaluating Therapies__ -Experiments aim to manipulate an independent variable, measure the dependent variable, and control all other variables. -An experiment has at least two different conditions; a comparison or control condition and an experimental condition.
 * Double-blind procedure** – An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
 * Placebo Effect** – Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an insert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.
 * Experimental Condition** – The condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independence variable.
 * Control condition** – The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
 * Random Assignment** – Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.
 * Independent Variable** – The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
 * Dependent Variable** – The experimental factor in psychology, the behavior or mental process that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.


 * Statistical Reasoning** – organize, summarize and make inference from the data (doubt big, round undocumented numbers)

Describing Data – organize by graphing

Measures of Central Tendency


 * Mode** – most frequently occurring score


 * Mean** – arithmetic average (can be skewed based upon extreme examples)


 * Median** – middle score


 * Range** – gap between lowest and highest scores (can be thrown off by extreme scores)


 * Standard Deviation** – how scores deviate from one another. Uses information from each score

Reliability of Information

Representative better than bias sample

Less variables better

More cases better than few

Statistical significance – sample averages are reliable and differences are large. Indicates

likelihood not importance. Variable probably did not cause the change. Arbitrary criterion < 5%.

Can Laboratory Experiments Illuminate Everyday Life? Yes

Remember it is the resulting principles not the specific findings that explain everyday behavior.

Less concerned about particular behaviors than with general principles that explain behavior.

Behavior and Culture (yes culture matters, but also do underlying human behaviors)

**Culture** – shared ideas and behavior shared by a large group of people that one generation passes on to the next.

Behavior and Gender – gender matters, but there is also much similarity between the sexes

Why Study Animals? – physiology similar

Ethical to experiment on animals? – animal well being vs. humans

People? Need informed consent, protect from harm and discomfort, individuals confidentiality, fully explain research after. APA

Value Free? No (postmodernists – question scientific objectivity)